Antibacterial and Pharmacological Properties of Ephedra foliata: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

A member of the Ephedraceae family, Ephedra foliata Boiss. Ex C.A. Mey is a shrub found in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, and has gained recognition for its various pharmacological characteristics and possible medical uses. The main aim of this review is to provide a thorough examination of E.foliata’s antibacterial and pharmacological properties, emphasizing its importance in both conventional and contemporary medicine. The plant carries antibacterial properties as it exhibit secondary metabolites like flavonoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids and phenolic compounds. In addition to its antibacterial qualities, E.foliata has a variety of pharmacological activity, such as antioxidant, metabolic regulating effects and anti-inflammatory effects. These properties play a crucial role in managing certain health conditions like respiratory disorders (asthma, cold, fever, cough), metabolic imbalances, diabetic conditions (Anti-diabetic) and manage weight related issues. Various genus of Ephedra has been studied so far yet E.foliata need to be highlighted. This paper compiles information regarding its antibacterial, ethnobotanical, pharmacological properties and in order to encourage precise avenues for further investigation.

Introduction

1. Botanical Characteristics

Ephedra foliata (commonly known as Mauhang, Shrubby Horsetail, or Unt Phog) is a drought-adapted shrub native to arid and semi-arid regions such as the Thar Desert in India, Southwest Asia, and North Africa. It belongs to the family Ephedraceae and order Ephedrales.

• It features woody, photosynthetic stems, scale-like leaves, and cone-like reproductive structures, helping conserve water and survive extreme environments.

2. Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Plantae

• Division: Gnetophyta

• Class: Gnetopsida

• Order: Ephedrales

• Family: Ephedraceae

• Genus: Ephedra

• Species: Ephedra foliata

3. Ethnobotanical Importance

• Used traditionally for treating asthma, liver issues, digestive disorders, fatigue, and obesity.

• Shows potential in COVID-19 treatment.

• Known for a wide range of pharmacological effects: anti-asthmatic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer, pain-relieving, and anti-inflammatory properties.

• Recognized by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and featured in the Ge-Gen decoction for treating fever-related conditions.

• Seen as a promising cash crop in India and the US due to low water needs and high medicinal value—mainly due to ephedrine alkaloids.

4. Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Properties

• Produces a wide array of bioactive compounds, including:

  • Alkaloids: Ephedrine (major), pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, ephedradine, ephedroxane.

  • Flavonoids: Herbacetin, kaempferol, catechin, apigenin, lucenin, etc.

  • Phenolics, terpenoids, amino acids, and sugars.

• Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine content ranges from 0.04% to 0.2%.

• Light-exposure (blue/red) enhances ephedrine production in cultured plant tissues.

• Antibacterial activity:

  • Effective against E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, S. typhi, K. pneumonia, and plant pathogens like Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

  • Endophytic bacteria in E. foliata contribute to antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer effects.

5. Pharmacological Effects

• Cardiovascular & Respiratory: Acts as a bronchodilator, vasoconstrictor, and CNS stimulant, affecting α and β-adrenergic receptors.

• Antiasthmatic: Used in TCM to relieve asthma symptoms.

• Anticancer: Shown to be potentially effective against lung, breast, thyroid cancers, mainly via phenolic and flavonoid compounds (e.g., herbacetin).

• Antiviral: Recent studies suggest potential to block SARS-CoV-2 entry by disrupting ACE2-spike protein interaction.

• Hepatoprotective:

  • Tested in Wistar rats: significant reduction in liver enzyme levels (SGOT, SGPT, ALP, bilirubin), confirming liver-protective properties.

• Other Effects:

  • Weight loss, nasal decongestion, mydriasis, spinal anesthesia support, and cytotoxic effects.

  • Contains phytochemicals like vicenin 2, 6-hydroxykynurenic acid, and 3-sophoroside 7-rhamnoside, contributing to its medical efficacy.

Conclusion

We analysed the botanical characteristics, taxonomical details, chemical composition, ethnobtany, pharmacological properties of Ephedra foliata. More than 60 species of Ephedra have been identified which constitutes more than 100 compounds including flavonoids, sugars, organic phenolic acids, alkaloids, etc. According to manuscript’s background, the inhibitory effect of E.foliata phyto-complex extracts on the bacterial growth of many human diseases demonstrates their high antibacterial potential. The pharmacological effects have been identified include antiasthmatic, antipyretic, among others. Although its toxicity cannot be ignored but its clinical applications are of large scale too, as it can be used to treat skin disease, helpful in weight loss, liver diseases, and COVID-19 infection. Because the continuous threat of bacteria resistance to traditional antibiotics, the antimicrobial qualities of E.foliata preparations are of particular interest. Over 20 Ephedra plant species have had the pharmacological characteristics studied, but still plenty of other Ephedra plant’s chemical makeup and pharmacological properties have not and Ephedra foliate is one of them. In this study we thoroughly summarized the clinical use of Ephedra for the first time after reviewing numerous publications.

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Copyright © 2025 Aruna Kumawat , Manju Chaudhary. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.