Disability, Gender and Educational Inequality in India: An Intersectional Review of Access, Participation and Inclusive Education

Abstract

Education is a fundamental human right, yet learners with disabilities in India continue to face barriers linked to inaccessible environments, inadequate support, stigma and exclusionary practices. These barriers are not experienced uniformly: gender interacts with disability and with caste, class, age, language and rural–urban location to shape access, participation, retention, achievement and progression. This critical narrative review examines disability, gender and educational inequality in India through an intersectional lens. It synthesises foundational intersectionality and feminist disability scholarship, India-focused empirical research, national data and relevant policy instruments. It considers barriers across school education, higher education and transition to work. The review argues that enrolment alone is insufficient; meaningful inclusion requires accessibility, reasonable accommodation, gender-responsive pedagogy, assistive technology, safeguarding, family engagement and institutional accountability. It identifies gaps in disaggregated evidence and proposes priorities for research, policy and practice. Equitable education requires addressing interacting structural barriers rather than treating gender and disability separately.

Introduction

The text examines the intersection of gender and disability in shaping educational inequality in India, with particular attention to the educational experiences of girls and women with disabilities. It highlights that education is a fundamental human right, but equal access involves more than school admission. It also requires meaningful classroom participation, accessible learning materials, appropriate support, academic progression and successful completion of education.

The review explains that girls and women with disabilities often experience multiple and overlapping forms of discrimination arising from disability, gender, poverty, caste, geographical location and social attitudes. Gender-based stereotypes, stigma, family expectations, inaccessible infrastructure, inadequate transport, communication barriers and limited institutional support can restrict their educational opportunities. The concept of intersectionality, developed by Crenshaw (1989), provides the theoretical foundation for understanding how these different forms of inequality interact. Feminist Disability Studies further emphasises the importance of recognising disabled women as individuals with rights, voices and decision-making abilities.

The review adopts a critical narrative review methodology, drawing on academic literature, national datasets, Indian legislation, education policies and international human-rights frameworks. It examines educational inequalities across different stages, including admission, enrolment, classroom participation, retention, academic achievement and transition to higher education and employment. It also considers the varying needs of learners with hearing, visual, locomotor and intellectual disabilities, as well as autism.

The discussion highlights the role of families, teachers, educational institutions and communities in either facilitating or restricting educational opportunities. It reviews important legal and policy provisions, including the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016), the Right to Education Act (2009) and the National Education Policy (2020). Although these frameworks promote equality and inclusive education, their effective implementation remains essential.

The review proposes several strategies to promote gender-responsive and disability-inclusive education, including Universal Design for Learning, gender-sensitive teaching practices, accessible infrastructure and transport, assistive technology, teacher training, family and community involvement, safeguarding measures and systematic monitoring through disaggregated data.

Finally, the review identifies important research gaps, particularly the limited availability of intersectional data and research on girls and women with different disabilities in India. It calls for more qualitative and quantitative studies examining the influence of gender, disability, caste, poverty and geographical location, especially in higher education, vocational training and employment transitions.

Conclusion

Disability, gender and educational inequality are interconnected dimensions of social disadvantage that shape educational opportunities in India. Girls and women with disabilities may encounter barriers arising from the interaction of disability-related inaccessibility, gender stereotypes, poverty, caste-based disadvantage, geographical isolation and institutional practices. These barriers can affect access, classroom participation, retention, achievement and progression to higher education and employment. The review shows that legal and policy commitments—including the UNCRPD, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 and the National Education Policy, 2020—provide an important foundation. Yet meaningful inclusion requires practical action: accessible infrastructure and content, reasonable accommodation, gender-responsive pedagogy, communication support, assistive technology, safeguarding, family and community engagement, and transparent institutional monitoring. An intersectional approach shifts attention from perceived individual limitations to the structural conditions that create exclusion. It also highlights the importance of reliable disaggregated data and the participation of girls and women with disabilities in research and decision-making. Ultimately, an equitable education system must ensure not only admission but also dignity, participation, learning, achievement, autonomy and meaningful educational progression for every learner.

References

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Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Danveer Gautam, Dr. Kaushal Sharma. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.