E-Waste Crisis and Mitigation: Generation Trends, Recovery Techniques, and Policy Interventions

Abstract

E-waste?has outpaced processing capabilities as phones, computers and other electronics are replaced at an increasingly rapid rate. Although these types of devices have “recoverable” metals, they are also relied upon?to be cheap and those precious metals will elicit a significant fraction of their weight in recovery also transport chemicals that are hazardous if spilled, dumped?or burned. This review looks at what countries manage?e-waste; the recycling techniques currently employed, and the rules that seek to contain?the quandary. Concepts such as the circular economy and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) are also discussed. In general, the review findings imply?that smarter collection systems cleaner?recycling, better enforcement can reduce waste harms to environment. The review emphasizes that improved collection efficiency, cleaner recovery technologies, and stricter enforcement of regulatory frameworks are essential for sustainable e-waste management in developing economies

Introduction

E-waste Overview:
Electronic waste (e-waste) includes discarded electronics such as mobile phones, laptops, and circuit boards. Rapid technological advancement, short product life cycles, and fewer repair options have led to a surge in e-waste globally. While e-waste contains valuable metals like copper and gold, it also harbors toxic substances such as lead and mercury. Improper disposal or informal recycling can contaminate soil and water and pose health risks to workers. Effective collection, processing, and regulation are essential to reduce environmental harm and recover valuable materials.

E-waste in India:

• India is the third-largest e-waste producer, generating nearly 2 million metric tonnes annually, with additional illegal imports.

• Major sources include government organizations, public and private enterprises (~75%), with households contributing ~16%.

• Most e-waste comes from IT and computer equipment (~70%), followed by telecom devices (12%), medical electronics (8%), and other consumer electronics (7%).

• Increasing smartphone adoption (1.12 billion mobile connections as of Jan 2025) accelerates e-waste generation.

• The growing e-waste highlights the need for sustainable product designs and best practices for end-of-life management.

E-waste Sources:

• Domestic: households, small businesses, larger enterprises, manufacturers, and retailers.

• Imported: transboundary movement of old electronics, often handled informally.

• Emphasizes the need for formal collection systems and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).

E-waste Management Methods:

1. Life-Extension & Prevention: Reducing e-waste at the source through durable, repairable, and modular products; rental, subscription, and refurbishment-first strategies.

2. System Integration & Collection: Integrating informal collectors into formal systems, providing training and compensation, digitized EPR platforms, and market-based compliance mechanisms.

3. Recovery & Recycling Technologies:

   • Hydrometallurgy: Energy-efficient, selective recovery using benign solvents.

   • Pyrometallurgy: High-temperature smelting, suitable for large mixed streams, higher environmental risk.

   • Bio-metallurgy: Low-grade or hybrid processing using microbial action with minimal environmental impact.

   • Use of AI, robotics, and automated sorting improves worker safety and efficiency.

Environmental & Human Risks:

• Improper handling of e-waste causes soil, air, and water contamination and exposes workers to toxic materials.

• Proper management, regulatory enforcement, and cleaner technologies mitigate these risks.

Laws & Regulations:

• E-Waste (Management) Rules 2022 introduced improvements in traceability, enforcement, and registration of stakeholders.

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mandates manufacturers, importers, and processors to ensure responsible collection and recycling.

• Challenges remain in enforcement, informal sector integration, consumer awareness, and infrastructure development.

Case Studies:

1. Bangalore, India – Hybrid Model: Partial integration of formal and informal recycling, with pilot NGO projects; challenges include price competition from unlicensed collectors.

2. Seelampur, India – Informal Market: High efficiency in material recovery through manual dismantling but severe health risks, child labor, and environmental pollution.

3. Guiyu, China – State-Directed Industrial Model: Centralized recycling in industrial parks reduced pollution but caused social and economic displacement of small businesses.

4. Switzerland – Formal EPR Model: Compliance-based system with high collection rates, certified facilities, and stable funding via Advance Recycling Fee; difficult to replicate in developing countries due to institutional and consumer limitations.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the major challenges and trends impacting e-waste management in India, as well as identify the potential hazards to both the environment and human health that are created by the increasing use of electronic and electrical goods. Furthermore, this review demonstrates a need for the adoption of innovative recycling technologies; improved collection strategies; and the proper implementation of circular economy regulatory frameworks. The present study provides a unified perspective to guide future research, innovation of technology, and policy formulation on the sustainable and responsible management of e-waste. Ultimately, the findings will aid in closing the gaps in e-waste management practices in rapidly developing countries by assisting researchers, engineers and policy makers.

References

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Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Anvesha Deshmukh, Pankaj Ramawat, Gokul Kalwane, Prakash Bhange. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.