Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation in Self-Healing Concrete: A Review

Abstract

Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) has emerged as a promising bio-based technology for developing self-healing concrete capable of autonomously repairing cracks and enhancing structural durability. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of recent advancements in microbial self-healing concrete, focusing on biomineralization mechanisms, bacterial and fungal species, carrier materials, encapsulation techniques, endospore technology, and calcium carbonate-precipitating biomass additives. The role of MICP in improving mechanical properties, reducing permeability, enhancing durability, and extending the service life of concrete structures is critically examined. Furthermore, the application of microbial mineralization in low-carbon cementitious materials, environmental remediation, heavy metal immobilization, and historical structure restoration is discussed. The findings indicate that MICP-based self-healing systems offer significant environmental and economic benefits by reducing maintenance requirements and supporting carbon-neutral construction practices. Despite substantial progress, challenges related to microbial survival, large-scale implementation, and long-term field performance remain. Future research directions for improving the efficiency and commercialization of MICP technology are also highlighted.

Introduction

This review examines the application of Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) as an innovative and sustainable approach for developing self-healing concrete. Although concrete is the most widely used construction material due to its strength, durability, and affordability, it is prone to cracking caused by shrinkage, thermal stress, mechanical loading, and environmental exposure. These cracks allow water and harmful chemicals to penetrate the concrete, accelerating reinforcement corrosion, reducing durability, and increasing maintenance costs. Self-healing concrete addresses these issues by autonomously repairing cracks, thereby extending the service life of structures and reducing repair requirements.

Among various self-healing techniques, MICP has emerged as one of the most promising because it is environmentally friendly and highly effective. In this process, microorganisms—particularly bacteria from the Bacillus genus—produce calcium carbonate (CaCO?) through their metabolic activities. The precipitated calcium carbonate fills cracks, pores, and voids within concrete, restoring mechanical strength, reducing permeability, and improving durability. Since the calcite formed is compatible with the cement matrix, MICP provides a long-lasting and efficient repair mechanism.

The technology also supports global sustainability goals by reducing the need for conventional repair materials, lowering maintenance costs, conserving resources, and decreasing carbon emissions. Additionally, the biomineralization process contributes to carbon sequestration by converting carbon into stable carbonate minerals, aligning MICP with carbon-neutral and circular economy principles. Beyond self-healing concrete, MICP has been applied in soil stabilization, environmental remediation, heavy metal immobilization, restoration of heritage structures, and the development of low-carbon cementitious materials.

The literature review highlights several recent advances in microbial self-healing concrete. Studies have shown that bacterial species capable of biomineralization significantly improve crack-sealing efficiency, durability, and resistance to water penetration. Research has also emphasized the importance of selecting suitable bacterial strains, nutrient sources, and environmental conditions to maximize calcium carbonate precipitation. Species such as Bacillus mucilaginosus and sulfate-reducing bacteria have demonstrated strong biomineralization capabilities, while microbial diversity influences the quantity, morphology, and durability of calcite formation.

A major challenge in MICP technology is maintaining bacterial survival within the highly alkaline concrete environment. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed encapsulation and immobilization techniques using materials such as cellulose and protective microcapsules. These methods improve bacterial viability, enhance calcium carbonate production, and increase crack-healing efficiency. The use of bacterial endospores, which are highly resistant to harsh environmental conditions, has further improved long-term healing performance by ensuring that microorganisms remain viable even after extended dormancy.

Recent studies have also focused on predictive modeling and artificial intelligence to optimize MICP performance. Predictive models have been developed to estimate crack-healing efficiency based on bacterial activity, nutrient concentration, and environmental conditions, enabling more reliable large-scale engineering applications. Environmental factors such as temperature, salinity, and pH have been shown to influence microbial metabolism and calcium carbonate precipitation, highlighting the need to design robust systems capable of performing under diverse climatic conditions.

Beyond crack repair, MICP has demonstrated additional benefits in improving the bond strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures, restoring mechanical properties after thermal damage, and enhancing the durability of strain-hardening cementitious composites (SHCC). Microstructural analyses reveal that the morphology and distribution of calcite crystals play a crucial role in healing effectiveness and permeability reduction. Researchers have also explored fungal-induced calcium carbonate mineralization, finding that fungi may offer advantages over bacteria due to their greater resistance to harsh environments and extensive filamentous growth.

Environmental applications of MICP extend beyond construction. Self-healing microbial materials have been successfully used to immobilize heavy metals such as lead (Pb²?), reducing contaminant migration while simultaneously repairing structural damage. Microcapsule-based systems further improve the controlled release of microbial agents, increasing both crack-sealing efficiency and environmental remediation performance.

Despite significant progress, several challenges remain before MICP can be widely adopted in industry. These include improving long-term bacterial viability, developing cost-effective encapsulation methods, standardizing testing procedures, validating long-term field performance, assessing lifecycle environmental benefits, integrating AI-based optimization techniques, and evaluating performance under varying environmental and loading conditions.

Conclusion

Although significant progress has been achieved in microbial self-healing concrete, several challenges remain unresolved. Most studies have focused on laboratory-scale investigations, while limited information is available regarding field-scale implementation and long-term performance under real service conditions. The influence of environmental factors such as cyclic loading, temperature fluctuations, and chemical exposure on microbial activity requires further investigation. Additionally, optimization of bacterial carriers, nutrient delivery mechanisms, and large-scale production of bio-healing agents remains an important research area. Future studies should also focus on life-cycle assessment, economic feasibility, and integration of artificial intelligence-based monitoring systems to facilitate practical adoption of MICP technology in sustainable infrastructure development. The reviewed literature demonstrates a rapid expansion of MICP research across multiple domains, including self-healing concrete, low-carbon construction materials, environmental remediation, historical structure preservation, and advanced biomineralization systems. Current investigations are increasingly focused on: 1) Development of novel bacterial and fungal strains. 2) Advanced encapsulation and microcapsule technologies. 3) Integration of MICP with low-carbon cementitious materials. 4) Predictive modeling and artificial intelligence applications. 5) Heavy metal immobilization and environmental restoration. 6) Long-term durability assessment under extreme conditions. 7) Field-scale implementation and commercialization. Collectively, these advancements indicate that MICP technology has evolved from a laboratory-scale self-healing mechanism into a multifunctional and sustainable engineering solution capable of addressing structural, environmental, and carbon-neutrality challenges in modern infrastructure development. The reviewed literature demonstrates that Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation is an effective and sustainable technology for self-healing concrete. Studies have confirmed its capability to seal cracks, restore durability, improve mechanical performance, and contribute to carbon-neutral construction practices. Advances in bacterial immobilization, endospore technology, predictive modeling, and environmental adaptation have significantly enhanced the feasibility of MICP systems. However, further research is required to address challenges related to scalability, long-term performance, and economic viability before widespread industrial implementation can be achieved.

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Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Rashmi P. Wade, Dr. A. W. Kharche, Dr. A. A. Malokar. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.