A Comprehensive Review of Plastic Concrete in Relation to Cut-Off Walls

Abstract

The remediation of earthen dams is becoming a topic of significant interest on a global scale. Plastic Concrete cut-off walls provide an efficient means of controlling seepage in dams. However, the behaviour of Plastic Concrete as a material is not yet fully comprehended. The review presented here indicates that Plastic Concrete can be classified as a low-strength, low-stiffness impervious concrete that exhibits a high capacity for deformation under load, while also highlighting the need for further exploration of its mechanical and hydraulic properties. This review presents a valuable opportunity to deepen the understanding of the material behaviour of Plastic Concrete and contribute to a more accurate design of Plastic Concrete cut-off walls.

Introduction

The document discusses the design, construction, and properties of cut-off walls using Plastic Concrete, which are used in dams and underground structures to control water seepage and improve impermeability. Cut-off walls act as underground barriers beneath dams, preventing leakage through permeable soil or rock foundations. They are widely used in earthen dams, excavation projects, coastal structures, waste containment, and underground water control systems.

???? Slurry Trench Construction Method:

Plastic Concrete cut-off walls are commonly constructed using the slurry trench method:

• A trench is excavated to the required depth.

• Bentonite or polymer slurry is used to stabilize the trench walls.

• After excavation, the slurry is replaced with backfill material.

• Concrete is placed using the tremie method to ensure continuous, homogeneous filling.

???? Plastic Concrete:

Plastic Concrete is a special type of backfill material designed for:

• High ductility

• Low permeability

• Improved deformation capacity

• Resistance to cracking (especially under seismic loads or reservoir pressure changes)

It contains:

• Cement

• Water (high water-to-cement ratio)

• Aggregates (mainly fine and medium)

• Bentonite (for waterproofing and flexibility)

• Admixtures (retarders, superplasticizers)

Bentonite is especially important because it:

• Swells when exposed to water

• Reduces porosity

• Improves impermeability

• Enhances resistance to chemicals and heavy metals

???? Mix Design:

Plastic Concrete differs from conventional concrete:

• Very high water-to-cement ratio (3.3–10)

• Low cement content (80–200 kg/m³)

• Bentonite content varies (0.5%–12%)

• Controlled aggregate size (to prevent segregation)

Mix design is based on parameters such as:

• Cement factor

• Bentonite content

• Water-cement ratio

• Aggregate ratio

Design often follows guidelines developed by organizations like the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).

???? Mixing Sequences:

Different mixing methods (Option A, B, C) affect:

• Mechanical strength

• Permeability

• Bentonite hydration

• Overall performance

Hydration time and mixer shear rate influence final material properties.

???? Fresh Properties:

Proper flowability is essential for tremie placement. Tests include:

• Slump test (~200 mm target)

• Flow table test (550–650 mm)

• Marsh funnel test (for slurry)

Maintaining workability ensures proper placement and avoids defects.

???? Hardened Properties:

The most important property is Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS).
Strength is mainly influenced by:

• Water-to-cement ratio (lower ratio → higher strength)

• Mix composition

• Bentonite content

Plastic Concrete design often assumes linear-elastic behavior, but its full mechanical behavior still requires further research. Excess cement is sometimes used due to lack of a complete material model, increasing cost and reducing sustainability.

Conclusion

This paper intends to deliver a detailed comprehension of the behavior of Plastic Concrete materials. With the insights obtained, Plastic Concrete can be reliably employed to ensure seepage control both inside and beneath dams, with a focus on controlled material behavior. Overall, the following factors should be considered in the design of Plastic Concrete cut-off walls. Plastic Concrete is regarded as a low strength concrete that possesses a low elastic modulus, enabling it to endure greater strains compared to conventional concrete. These characteristics can be achieved through careful selection of raw materials and an optimized mix design. The most distinctive factor that sets Plastic Concrete apart from standard concrete is its significantly higher water-to-cement ratio, which necessitates the management of fresh concrete stability through minimal amounts of physically water-binding additives. Typically, bentonite, a clay-rock made up of montmorillonite minerals, is incorporated, although other additives may also be utilized. Ultimately, Plastic Concrete employs standard aggregate with a maximum grain size of 12.5 mm (to mitigate the risk of segregation) and includes retarding admixtures to postpone the setting of concrete during tremie placement. Plastic Concrete mix design closely resembles that of standard concrete, featuring aggregate content that spans from 1300 to 1900 kg/m3 and cement content that lies within the range of 80 to 200 kg/m3. The water-to-cement ratio usually varies between 2.0 and 5.0, depending on the target strength and the properties of the constituent materials. Additionally, the sequence in which the components are mixed has been shown influence the fresh and hardened properties of plastic concrete, although no standardized mixing sequence currently exists. Plastic Concrete exhibits mechanical behavior consistent with what is anticipated from concrete technology. Nevertheless, it is essential to recognize that much of the testing is carried out using geotechnical testing standards instead of concrete testing standards. This is especially relevant when evaluating the deformability of Plastic Concrete, including its elastic modulus. It can be established that the compressive strength of Plastic Concrete increases with a decrease in the w/c-ratio. Nonetheless, the w/c-ratio does not consider the addition of bentonite, and therefore does not take into account the reduction in free water available for cement hydration. The compressive strength of Plastic Concrete usually lies between 0.5 and 2.5 MPa at 28 days, with the development of compressive strength being quite pronounced, extending significantly beyond the 28-day period. Thus, it may also be advantageous to evaluate the compressive strength of Plastic Concrete at greater ages, such as 56 and 90 days. In addition, the loading rate should be modified to reflect the low strength of the material and should be tested at a loading speed of between 0.02 MPa/s and 0.03 MPa/s. The strain at which Plastic Concrete fails is considerably higher than that of conventional concrete, which can reach a maximum strain of 1% when subjected to compression. The hydraulic properties of Plastic Concrete, along with concrete in general, remain a largely under-researched domain, particularly in terms of testing under realistic stress scenarios. It has been demonstrated that the permeability of Plastic Concrete decreases with a lower water-cement (w/c) ratio, which is associated with a less porous material structure. There is limited documentation in the literature regarding the changes in Plastic Concrete permeability over time; however, it has been established that a decrease in permeability over time does occur. Therefore, it is prudent to perform permeability tests on Plastic Concrete at ages greater than 28 days (for example, at 56 and 90 days) to account for the time-dependent variations in permeability.

References

[1] ICOLD Bulletin 150 on Cutoffs for Dams [2] European Federation of Foundation Contractors, Deep Foundations Institute, Guide to Support Fluids for Deep Foundations, first ed., 2019 [3] D.A. Bruce (Ed.), Specialty Construction Techniques for Dam and Levee Remediation, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2013. [4] U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Design Standards No. 13: Embankment Dam, Chapter 16: Cutoff Walls, Revision 14 (2014/07) [5] D. AlosShepherd, ´ E. Kotan, F. Dehn, Plastic concrete for cut-off walls: a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 255 (2020), 119248, [6] M. Ghazavi, Z. Safarzadeh, H. Hashemolhoseini, Response of plastic concrete cut-off walls in earth dams to seismic loading using finite element methods (Canadian Association for Earthquake Engineering (Ed.)). Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, 2004. [7] K. Beckhaus, J. Kayser, F. Kleist, J. Quarg-Vonscheidt, D. Al´os Shepherd, Design concept for sustainable cut-off walls made of highly deformable filling materials, in: R. Boes, P. Droz, R. Leroy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 12th ICOLD European Club Symposium 2023 (ECS 2023, Interlaken, Switzerland, 5-8 September 2023), CRC Press, Milton, 2023. [8] F. Solomon, S.E. Ekolu, Strength behaviour of clay-cement concrete and quality implications for low-cost construction materials, in: M.G. Alexander, H.- D. Beushausen, F. Dehn, P. Moyo (Eds.), Concrete repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting III, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting (ICCRRR), Cape Town, South Africa, September 3rd - 5th 2012, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2012, pp. 1420–1425. [9] M.L. Nehdi, Clay in cement-based materials: critical overview of state-of-the-art, Constr. Build. Mater. 51 (2014) 372–382 [10] P. Grübl, H. Weigler, S. Karl, Concrete: Types, Production and Properties, 2nd Edition, Handbook for Concrete, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Construction, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 2001 [11] R. Weber, P. Bilgeri, H. Kollo, H.-W. Vißmann (Eds.), Blast Furnace Cement – Properties and Applications in Concrete, second ed., Verl. Bau+Technik, Düsseldorf, 1998 [12] A.M. Neville, Properties of concrete, fifth ed., Pearson, Harlow, 2011 [13] H.-W. Reinhardt, Engineering Materials, second ed., Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 2010 [14] International Commission On Large Dams, Filling materials for watertight cut off walls, Bulletin 51, 1985 [15] B. Meng, Q. Guo, X. Men, S. Ren, W. Jin, B. Shen, Preparation of modified bentonite by polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane and sodium dodecyl sulfate in aqueous phase and its adsorption property, Mater. Lett. 253 (2019) 71–73. [16] Additives EPo, Products or Substances used in Animal F. Scientific Opinion on the efficacy of Bentonite (dioctahedral montmorillonite) for all species. EFSA J2011;9(6):2276. [17] M. Segad, B. Jonsson, T. Akesson, B. Cabane, Ca/Na montmorillonite: structure, forces and swelling properties, Langmuir 26 (8) (2010) 5782–5790. [18] M.H. Köster, L.B. Williams, P. Kudejova, H.A. Gilg, The boron isotope geochemistry of smectites from sodium, magnesium and calcium bentonite deposits, Chem. Geol. 510 (2019) 166–187. [19] G. Sposito, K.M. Holtzclaw, L. Charlet, C. Jouany, A.L. Page, Sodium-calcium and sodium-magnesium exchange on wyoming bentonite in perchlorate and chloride background ionic media, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 47 (1983) 51–56. [20] L. Liu, Prediction of swelling pressures of different types of bentonite in dilute solutions, Colloids Surf., A 434 (2013) 303–318. [21] M. Muzakky, C. Supriyanto, Modification of three types of bentonite with zirconium oxide chloride (ZOC) of local products using intercalation process, Indonesian J. Chem. 16 (2016) 14–19. [22] R. Fernandez, J. Cuevas, U.K. Mader, Modelling concrete interaction with a bentonite barrier, Eur. J. Mineral. 21 (1) (2009) 177–191. [23] S. Andrejkovic?ová, C. Alves, A. Velosa, F. Rocha, Bentonite as a natural additive for lime and lime–metakaolin mortars used for restoration of adobe buildings, Cem. Concr. Compos. 60 (2015) 99–110. [24] P. Leroy, A. Revil, D. Coelho, Diffusion of ionic species in bentonite, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 296 (1) (2006) 248–255. [25] H.H. Lee, C.W. Wang, experimental study on cement mortar with bentonite, Adv. Mater. Res. 671–674 (2013) 1741–1744. [26] A.K. Parande, B. Ramesh Babu, M. Aswin Karthik, K.K. Deepak Kumaar, N. Palaniswamy, Study on strength and corrosion performance for steel embedded in metakaolin blended concrete/mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (3) (2008) 127–134. [27] M. Li, Z. Wu, Preparation, characterization, and humidity-control performance of organobentonite/sodium polyacrylate mortar, J. Macromol. Sci. Part B 51 (8) (2012) 1647–1657 [28] J. Mirza, M. Riaz, A. Naseer, F. Rehman, A.N. Khan, Q. Ali, Pakistani bentonite in mortars and concrete as low cost construction material, Appl. Clay Sci. 45 (4) (2009) 220–226. [29] S. Ahmad, S.A. Barbhuiya, A. Elahi, J. Iqbal, Effect of Pakistani bentonite on properties of mortar and concrete, Clay Miner. 46 (1) (2018) 85–92. [30] J.P. Gonçalves, L.M. Tavares, R.D. Toledo Filho, E.M.R. Fairbairn, Performance evaluation of cement mortars modified with metakaolin or ground brick, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (5) (2009) 1971–1979. [31] N. Mesboua, K. Benyounes, A. Benmounah, S.K. Shukla, Study of the impact of bentonite on the physico-mechanical and flow properties of cement grout, Cogent Eng. 5 (1) (2018). [32] I. Garcia-Lodeiro, N. Boudissa, A. Fernandez-Jimenez, A. Palomo, Use of clays in alkaline hybrid cement preparation. The role of bentonites, Mater. Lett. 233 (2018) 134–137 [33] F. Raúl, A.I. Ruiz, J. Cuevas, Formation of C-A-S-H phases from the interaction between concrete or cement and bentonite, Clay Miner. 51 (2) (2018) 223–235. [34] J. Wei, B. Gencturk, Hydration of ternary Portland cement blends containing metakaolin and sodium bentonite, Cem. Concr. Res. 123 (2019) 105772 [35] M.A. Fadaie, M. Nekooei, P. Javadi, Effect of dry and saturated bentonite on plastic concrete, KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 23 (8) (2019) 3431–3442. [36] A.T. Amlashi, S.M. Abdollahi, S. Goodarzi, A.R. Ghanizadeh, Soft computing based formulations for slump, compressive strength, and elastic modulus of bentonite plastic concrete, J. Cleaner Prod. 230 (2019) 1197–1216. [37] I. Plecas, R. Pavlovic, S. Pavlovic, Leaching behavior of 60Co and 137Cs from spent ion exchange resins in cement–bentonite clay matrix, J. Nucl. Mater. 327 (2) (2004) 171–174. [38] I. Sato, K. Maeda, M. Suto, M. Osaka, T. Usuki, S. Koyama, Penetration behaviour of water solution containing radioactive species into dried concrete/mortar and epoxy resin materials, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 52 (4) (2015) 580–587. [39] M. Katsioti, N. Katsiotis, G. Rouni, D. Bakirtzis, M. Loizidou, The effect of bentonite/cement mortar for the stabilization/solidification of sewage sludge containing heavy metals, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (10) (2008) 1013–1019. [40] S. Praetorius, B. Schößer, Bentonite Handbook: Annular Gap Lubrication for Pipe Jacking, Civil Engineering Practice, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 2016. [41] M. Geil, Investigations into the physical and chemical properties of bentonite-cement suspensions in the fresh and hardened state, Dissertation, Technical University of Braunschweig, Braunschweig, 1989. [42] H. Abbaslou, A.R. Ghanizadeh, A.T. Amlashi, The compatibility of bentonite/ sepiolite plastic concrete cut-off wall material, Constr. Build. Mater. 124(2016) 1165–1173 [43] L.M. Hu, X.L. Lv, D.Y. Gao, K.B. Yan, S.Q. Song, Analysis of the influence of clay dosage and curing age on the strength of plastic concrete, Adv. Mater. Res. 936 (2014) 1433–1437 [44] O. Nasir, T.S. Nguyen, J.D. Barnichon, A. Millard, Simulation of hydromechanical behaviour of bentonite seals for containment of radioactive wastes, Can. Geotech. J. 54 (8) (2017) 1055–1070 [45] Austrian Standards Institute, ÖNORM B 4452 - Earthworks and Foundation Engineering - Sealant Walls in Subsoil (1998/12) [46] A. Weinmann, Vertical barriers with plastic concrete for containment of landfills and contaminated land, in: 3rd International Symposium and Exhibition on Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe, Warsaw, 1996 [47] P. Banzhaf, \"Experiences in the Construction of the Two-Phase Cut-Off Wall at the Hinze Dam, Australia,\" in: C. Bergmann (Ed.), Proceedings at the 17th Darmstadt Geotechnical Colloquium, Communications of the Institute and the Geotechnical Research Institute of the Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, 2010, pp. 39–48 [48] Institution of Civil Engineers, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Building Research Establishment, Specification for the construction of slurry trench cut-off walls: as barriers to pollution migration, 1999 [49] T.W. Kahl, J.L. Kauschinger, E.B. Perry, Plastic Concrete Cut-Off Walls for Earth Dams, Technical Report REMR-GT-15, USACE, Vicksburg, MS, 1991 [50] ASTM C192-25 - Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the laboratory [51] Garand P., Bigras, A., Rattue D.A. & Hammamji, Y., 2006a. Geo-mechanical behaviour of plastic concrete. Trans. 22nd ICOLD, Barcelona, Q.84, R.24, 1:373-390. [52] Garand P., Bigras, A., Rattue D.A., Hammamji, Y. & Saucet, J-Ph., 2006b. Erosion resistance of plastic concrete. Trans. 22nd ICOLD, Barcelona, Q.84, R.25, 1:391-410 [53] J. de Vries. Cement-bentonite sealing walls, report BSW 91-13. Department of Public Works and Water Management, Utrecht, 1992 [54] A.R. Bagheri, M. Alibabaie, M. Babaie, Reduction in the permeability of plastic concrete for cut-off walls through utilization of silica fume, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (6) (2008) 1247–1252 [55] J. Sadrekarimi, Plastic concrete mechanical behaviour, J. Inst. Engineers India Civil Eng. Division 82 (FEV) (2002) 201–207. [56] A. Becker, C. Vrettos, Laboratory investigations on the material behavior of clay concrete, Bautechnik 92 (2) (2015) 152–160 [57] J.C. Evans, E.D. Stahl, E. Drooff, Plastic concrete cutoff walls, in: R.D. Woods (Ed.), Geotechnical practice for waste disposal ’87, Geotechnical Special Publications, ASCE, New York, 1987, pp. 462–472. [58] S. Hinchberger, J. Weck, T. Newson, Mechanical and hydraulic characterization of plastic concrete for seepage cut-off walls, Can. Geotech. J. 47 (4) (2010) 461–471 [59] A. Mahboubi, A. Ajorloo, Experimental study of the mechanical behavior of plastic concrete in triaxial compression, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2) (2005) 412– 419 [60] Y. Pashang Pisheh, S.M. Mir Mohammad Hosseini, Stress-strain behavior of plastic concrete using monotonic triaxial compression tests, J. Central South Univ. 19 (4) (2012) 1125–1131 [61] F. Jafarzadeh, S.H. Mousavi, Effect of specimen’s age on mechanical properties of plastic concrete walls in dam foundations, Electron. J. Geotechnical Eng. 17(D) (2012) 473–482. [62] S. Klima, K. Beckhaus, \"Sealant Wall in the Sylvenstein Dam,\" in: S.A. Savidis, F. Remspecher (Eds.), Proceedings at the 10th Hans Lorenz Symposium, Publications of the Foundation Engineering Institute of the Technical University of Berlin, Shaker, Aachen, 2014, pp. 235–243 [63] T. Kränkel, D. Lowke, and C. Gehlen. Rheology Testing of Deep Foundation Concrete. In W. Kusterle, O. Teubert, and M. Greim (Eds.), Rheological Measurements on Building Materials 2016, pp. 211–223. tredition, Hamburg, 2016 [64] European Federation of Foundation Contractors and Deep Foundations Institute. Best Practice Guide to Tremie Concrete for Deep Foundations, 2nd Edition, 2018 [65] European Standardization Committee. EN 206:2017-01 - Concrete – Specification, Properties, Production, and Conformity [66] European Standardization Committee. EN ISO 10426-2:2006-02 - Petroleum and gas industries - Cements and materials for cementing deep wells - Part 2: Testing of well cements [67] German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste. Information Sheet 512-1 - Sealing Systems in Hydraulic Engineering - Part 1: Earth Structures, 2012/02 [68] European Standardization Committee. EN 12350-6:2011-03 - Testing of fresh concrete - Part 6: Fresh concrete density [69] European Standardization Committee. EN 12350-10:2010-12 - Testing of fresh concrete - Part 10: Self-compacting concrete - L-box test [70] German Institute for Standardization. DIN 4127:2014-02 - Earthworks and Foundation Engineering - Test methods for supporting fluids in diaphragm wall construction and their source materials [71] ASTM International. ASTM D6910-19 - Test Method for Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Clay Construction Slurries [72] N. Roussel (Ed.). Understanding the rheology of concrete. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge and Philadelphia, PA, 2012 [73] L. Alvarez, J. Larenas, A. Bernal, J.A. Marin, Characteristics of the Plastic Concrete of the Diaphragm Wall of Convento Viejo Dam, in: International Commission On Large Dams (Ed.), 14th International Congress on Large Dams in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Vol. IV, 1982, pp. 371–389 [74] P. Lappenküper, Investigations into the Water Permeability of Soil-Concrete Sealing Walls Under Bending Shear Stress, Hamburg University of Technology, Master\'s Thesis, 2016 [75] C. Ozyildirim and N. J. Carino. Concrete Strength Testing. In J. F. Lamond and J. H. Pielert (Eds.), Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials - STP 169D, pp. 125–140. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2006 [76] IS 516 (Part 1/Sec 1) : 2021, Hardened concrete - Methods of test: Part 1 Testing of strength of hardened concrete: Section 1 Compressive, flexural and split tensile strength [77] European Standardization Committee, EN 12390-3:2009-07 – Testing of hardened concrete – Part 3: Compressive strength of test specimens [78] ASTM International, ASTM C39/C39M-21 - Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens [79] Bureau of Indian standards IS 2720 (Part 10) RA 2025, Methods of test for soils: Part 10 determination of unconfined compressive strength [80] German Institute for Standardization, DIN 18136:2003-11 - Subsoil, Examination of soil samples – Uniaxial compression test [81] ASTM International, ASTM D2166/D2166M-24 - Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil [82] S. Kazemian, S. Ghareh, L. Torkanloo, To investigation of plastic concrete bentonite changes on it’s physical properties, Proc. Eng. 145 (2016) 1080-1087 [83] S. Hinchberger, J. Weck, T. Newson, Mechanical and hydraulic characterization of plastic concrete for seepage cut-off walls, Can. Geotech. J. 47 (4) (2010) 461-471 [84] German Institute for Standardization, DIN 4093:2015-11 - Design of consolidated soils – Produced using jet grouting, deep mixing, or injection methods [85] Chamroeun Chhorn, Seong Jae Hong and Seung Woo Lee, 2018. Relationship between compressive and tensile strengths of roller-compacted concrete. J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.). Vol. 5 (3), pp 215-223 [86] Lavanya, G and Jegan, J., 2015. Evaluation of relationship between split tensile strength and compressive strength for geopolymer concrete of varying grades and molarity. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. Vol. 10 (15), pp 35523–27 [87] Bureau of Indian standards IS 456:2000 RA 2026, Plain and reinforced concrete - Code of practice [88] C. Högl. Design of clay concrete: Determination of the influence of building material properties based on a closed design model. Diploma thesis, Vienna University of Technology, 2013 [89] P. Zhang, Q. Guan, and Q. Li. Mechanical Properties of Plastic Concrete Containing Bentonite. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 5(4):1317–1322, 2013 [90] R. Nevárez-Garibaldi, D. Miller, and G. Filz. Influence of Test Conditions and Mixture Proportions on the Strength and Stiffness of Soil Treated with Cement to Represent the Wet Method of Deep Mixing: A report to the Deep Foundations Institute: In Progress. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 2017 [91] S. Z. Cheng, S. J. Xu, R. Cong, and K. L. Wang. Experimental Study on Mix Design of Plastic Concrete with Lower Elastic Modulus and Higher Impervious Coefficient. Advanced Materials Research, 535-537:1936–1939, 2012 [92] Bureau of Indian standards IS 14344:2021 Design and construction of diaphragms for under seepage control [93] S.-H. Liu, L.-J. Wang, Z.-J. Wang, E. Bauer, Numerical stress-deformation analysis of cut-off wall in clay-core rockfill dam on thick overburden, Water Sci. Eng. 9 (3) (2016) 219–226 [94] International Federation for Structural Concrete (Ed.), fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2020 [95] I. Anders. Constitutive law for describing the creep and relaxation behavior of young normal-strength and high-strength concretes: Dissertation, Volume 73 of the Karlsruhe Series on Concrete Construction, Building Materials Technology, and Materials Testing. KIT Scientific Publishing, Karlsruhe, 2013 [96] K. Beckhaus, H. Lesemann, P. Banzhaf, C. Högl, Which material model for highly deformable diaphragm wall concrete is suitable for geotechnical design in dam construction?, in: Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects (Ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Austrian Geotechnical Conference, Vienna, 2015, pp. 211–222 [97] European Standardization Committee. EN 12390-8:2009-07 - Testing of hardened concrete - Part 8: Water penetration depth under pressure [98] C. Scholz, M. Rosenberg, J. Dietrich, A. Märten, \"Determining the Permeability of Single-Phase Sealing Wall Compounds - What is Theoretically Possible and What is Practically Necessary?\", in: M. Rosenberg (Ed.), \"Quality Assurance and Innovation,\" Communication from the Institute of Foundation Engineering and Soil Mechanics, Technical University of Braunschweig, vol. 69, Braunschweig, 2002, pp. 241–263 [99] German Institute for Standardization, DIN 18130-1:1998-05 - Subsoil, Examination of soil samples – Determination of the water permeability coefficient. Part 1: Laboratory tests [100] B.L. Kilpatrick, S.J. Garner, Use of cement-bentonite for cutoff wall construction, in: R.H. Borden, R.D. Holtz, I. Juran (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1992 American Society of Civil Engineers; Specialty Conference on Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 30, ASME, New York, 1992, pp. 803–815 [101] S. Hoshino, T. Yamaguchi, T. Maeda, M. Mukai, T. Tanaka, S. Nakayama, Mineralogical Changes of Cement and Bentonite Accompanied With Their Interactions, in: B.E. Burakov, A.S. Aloy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2009 MRS Meeting – Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management XXXIII, Materials Research Society, Warrendale, PA, 2009, pp. 445–452 [102] C.K. Edvardsen, Water Permeability and Self-Healing of Separation Cracks in Concrete, German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, Vol. 455, Beuth, Berlin, 1996

Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Lalit Kumar Solanki, Ravi Agarwal, Hanuman Prasad Meena. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.