Review of Kinetic Energy Harvesting via Adaptive Suspension Resonance

Abstract

This review explores kinetic energy harvesting via adaptive suspension resonance in vehicles, focusing on the conversion of vibrational energy into usable electrical power. It addresses the inefficiencies in traditional suspension systems and examines various energy harvesting mechanisms including electromagnetic, piezoelectric, and hydraulic transduction methods. The paper highlights the importance of adaptive resonance tuning to match varying road-induced vibration frequencies and discusses control strategies such as classical, modern, and intelligent systems. Challenges in practical implementation, such as mechanical complexity, retrofitting issues, and trade-offs between comfort and energy recovery, are also analysed. A comprehensive review of recent prototypes and their performance metrics is presented, emphasizing the potential of these technologies to contribute to vehicle electrification, fuel efficiency, and intelligent system integration. This review also highlights the comparative advantages and trade-offs among transduction methods across various suspension types. By addressing both theoretical principles and real-world limitations, it bridges the gap between concept and application. Emerging trends in hybrid systems and Al-based control strategies are discussed to guide future research directions.

Introduction

Overview and Motivation

• Increasing concerns about energy sustainability and emission standards have driven research into alternative energy sources in vehicles.

• Traditional suspension systems dissipate 10–16% of fuel energy as heat, especially in urban or off-road driving.

• KEH aims to recover this wasted energy by converting suspension vibrations into usable electrical energy.

?? Advantages of KEH in Suspensions

• Consistent energy source: Unlike regenerative braking, KEH operates continuously when the vehicle is moving.

• Supports low-power onboard systems (e.g., sensors, lighting), reducing alternator load and improving fuel economy.

• Fits with modern automotive trends: electrification, smart sensors, weight reduction, and wireless systems.

???? Challenges

• Suspension vibrations vary with vehicle speed, terrain, and load, making frequency matching difficult.

• Traditional fixed-frequency harvesters often perform poorly in real-world conditions.

• To solve this, researchers are developing adaptive resonance mechanisms using:

  • Mechanical tuning

  • Variable stiffness materials

  • Intelligent control algorithms

???? Transduction Mechanisms in KEH

1. Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting (EMEH)

• Principle: Converts motion between magnets and coils into electricity (Faraday’s Law).

• Designs: Rack-and-pinion, ball-screw, linear generators, rocker arms, mechanical motion rectifiers (MMRs).

• Power output: 10–150 W per suspension unit (highest among KEH types).

• Challenges: Mechanical wear, noise, complexity.

• Trends: Use of rare-earth magnets (e.g., neodymium), Halbach arrays, and modular systems.

2. Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting (PEH)

• Principle: Mechanical stress on piezo materials (PZT, PVDF) generates surface charge.

• Designs: Integrated into springs, dampers, or cantilever beams.

• Power output: Microwatts to a few milliwatts — suitable for low-power sensors.

• Advantages: Compact, no moving parts, long life.

• Limitations: Low power; research focuses on enhancing output via materials and frequency up-conversion.

3. Hydraulic Energy Harvesting

• Principle: Converts suspension motion into fluid pressure, which powers a generator.

• Applications: Heavy-duty vehicles (trucks, buses).

• Power output: Up to 200 W in lab, 14.77 W in real buses.

• Advantages: Handles high loads, suitable for harsh environments.

• Challenges: Efficiency losses, fluid leakage, added mass.

4. Other Mechanisms

• Electrostatic: MEMS-scale; low scalability due to priming voltage.

• Triboelectric: Promising lab results but issues with durability and material wear.

• Hybrid systems: Combine piezoelectric and electromagnetic methods for broader frequency response, but are complex and bulky.

???? Design Considerations

• Systems must balance energy harvesting with ride comfort and safety.

• Effective KEH requires adaptability to irregular, broadband vibrations found in real driving conditions.

• Technologies like adaptive tuning, multi-modal designs, and smart damping are key research areas.

Conclusion

This review has presented a comprehensive evaluation of kinetic energy harvesting (KEH) via adaptive suspension resonance in vehicles. Various transduction mechanisms—including electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and hybrid systems—offer distinct advantages depending on specific power demands, dynamic conditions, cost considerations, and target vehicle platforms. Each mechanism exhibits unique performance trade-offs, and their effectiveness depends not only on intrinsic material and transducer properties but also on suspension topology, excitation profile, and real-world deployment constraints. The integration of adaptive resonance tuning strategies—mechanical, electromechanical, and intelligent control-based—has demonstrated significant potential in improving energy capture efficiency under dynamic road conditions. Mechanical tuning approaches offer low-power adjustability, while electromechanical and control-based systems provide real-time adaptability, albeit at the cost of higher complexity and power overhead. Hybrid architectures that combine passive and active control loops appear particularly promising for creating robust, scalable, and energy-efficient KEH systems. Despite substantial advancements in modelling, simulation, and prototype validation, the transition from laboratory-scale experimentation to large-scale vehicular integration remains constrained. Challenges such as system durability, packaging constraints, electromagnetic interference, fluid losses in hydraulic units, and increased unsprung mass continue to hinder practical implementation. Moreover, manufacturing cost, regulatory compliance, and retrofitting compatibility must be addressed before widespread adoption becomes feasible. Nevertheless, ongoing innovations in lightweight composites, printed piezoelectric materials, ultra-low-power electronics, and AI-driven tuning algorithms present transformative opportunities. With the automotive industry moving rapidly toward electrification, autonomous operation, and intelligent vehicle networks, KEH-enabled suspensions may evolve beyond energy harvesting into multi-functional systems that combine energy recovery, self-powered sensing, and adaptive ride control. In conclusion, KEH-equipped suspension systems represent a compelling frontier in vehicular energy sustainability. Continued interdisciplinary research—spanning materials science, automotive dynamics, power electronics, and embedded AI—will be instrumental in enabling robust, modular, and self-powered KEH platforms capable of powering the next generation of smart, efficient, and autonomous vehicles.

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Copyright

Copyright © 2025 Gandhar S. Purandare, Vaibhav Shah, Shashikant Kawale, Tejas Sahare, Vinod Bodhale. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.