A Comprehensive Review on the Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste with Geotextile Reinforcement in Granular Sub-Base Layers for Sustainable Flexible Pavement Construction

Abstract

Globally, the production of construction and demolition waste has dramatically increased due to the quick expansion of infrastructure development and urbanization. In addition to taking up valuable landfill space, improper disposal of these materials depletes natural resources and degrades the environment. In road construction, recycling of various waste materials is getting wide acceptance, leading to reduced requirements of natural aggregates. Several studies have shown that, when proper gradation, compaction, and quality control procedures are followed, recycled C&D aggregates can be effectively used in granular sub-base layers of flexible pavements. However, compared to traditional aggregates, differences in material properties often lead to greater deformation and lower strength. To overcome these restrictions, geotextiles are increasingly used as reinforcement materials to increase the strength of pavement layers, reduce rutting, and improve load distribution. This review critically examines the engineering properties of recycled C&D materials, their appropriateness for GSB applications, and the impact of geotextile reinforcement on pavement performance. In order to maximize the use of recycled materials in sustainable pavement construction, the paper discusses future opportunities, identifies research gaps, and summarizes the results of recent studies. The review emphasizes how applying geotextile reinforcement along with recycled C&D aggregates can greatly enhance pavement performance while encouraging the development of environmentally friendly infrastructure.

Introduction

Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste generation is increasing rapidly due to urbanisation, infrastructure development, and redevelopment activities. Improper disposal of C&D waste creates environmental problems, while the increasing demand for natural aggregates in road construction raises sustainability concerns. Recycled C&D aggregates provide an effective alternative for use in pavement construction, especially in Granular Sub-Base (GSB) layers, where high-quality aggregates are not essential. Their use helps conserve natural resources, reduce landfill waste, lower construction costs, and support sustainable pavement practices. However, recycled aggregates generally have higher water absorption, lower density, and variable mechanical properties compared with natural aggregates, requiring proper processing and quality control.

Geotextile reinforcement has emerged as an effective technique to improve pavement performance by providing separation, filtration, drainage, and reinforcement functions. Geotextiles enhance aggregate confinement, improve stress distribution, increase bearing capacity, and reduce permanent deformation. Their application in GSB layers can compensate for the reduced strength of recycled C&D aggregates and improve pavement durability.

C&D waste consists of materials such as concrete, bricks, asphalt, masonry, ceramics, metals, wood, glass, plastics, and excavated soil. Before use in pavement construction, C&D waste undergoes processing stages including segregation, contaminant removal, crushing, screening, grading, and quality testing to improve its engineering properties. Properly processed recycled aggregates can meet GSB requirements and partially replace natural aggregates.

GSB is a key layer in flexible pavements that provides strength, drainage, and load distribution. According to MoRTH specifications, suitable GSB materials should satisfy requirements related to CBR, aggregate impact value, plasticity, liquid limit, and gradation. Studies indicate that recycled C&D aggregates can replace natural aggregates in GSB layers at approximately 20–50% levels while maintaining satisfactory performance.

Geotextiles, made from materials such as polypropylene and polyester, are classified into woven, non-woven, and knitted types. They improve pavement performance through separation of layers, reinforcement of aggregates, filtration of water, and drainage improvement. Their effectiveness depends on factors such as material properties, placement location, pavement structure, and loading conditions.

The combined use of recycled C&D aggregates and geotextile reinforcement offers a sustainable approach for flexible pavement construction. Research shows that geotextile-reinforced recycled aggregate layers achieve higher CBR values, improved compaction, reduced settlement, and better resistance to repeated traffic loading compared with unreinforced layers. However, limited studies have investigated the combined application of recycled C&D materials and geotextiles in GSB layers, highlighting the need for further research to optimize their use and promote sustainable pavement technologies.

Conclusion

The growing demand for sustainable infrastructure and the depletion of natural aggregate resources have increased interest in using C&D waste in pavement construction. This review highlights the significant potential of recycled C&D aggregates as an alternative to natural aggregates for GSB layers in flexible pavements. When properly processed and graded, recycled materials exhibit satisfactory engineering properties, including adequate compaction, bearing capacity, and durability, making them suitable for sub-base applications. The reviewed literature indicates that the performance of recycled C&D aggregates largely depends on the replacement level and material quality. Most studies report that replacement levels of up to 30% provide an effective balance among engineering performance, economic viability, and environmental sustainability. Although recycled aggregates generally have higher water absorption and slightly lower density than virgin aggregates, these limitations can be minimized through proper material selection, gradation, and quality control. Geotextile reinforcement significantly enhances the performance of flexible pavements by improving load distribution, aggregate confinement, drainage, and separation, while increasing the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and reducing pavement deformation. The combined use of recycled C&D waste and geotextile reinforcement, therefore, offers a practical solution for developing durable, sustainable pavement systems while reducing dependence on natural resources and minimizing construction waste disposal. Despite the encouraging findings, several challenges remain. Limited information is available on long-term field performance, the optimal placement depth for geotextiles, higher replacement rates, and the durability of reinforced recycled pavement systems under varying traffic and environmental conditions. Addressing these aspects through future research will support the development of standardized design guidelines and wider implementation in road construction. Overall, this review\'s findings demonstrate that integrating recycled C&D waste with geotextile reinforcement is a technically feasible, economically beneficial, and environmentally sustainable approach to improving the performance of GSB layers in flexible pavements. Continued research, supported by appropriate quality control and adherence to MoRTH, IRC, and BIS specifications, will further promote the adoption of recycled materials and contribute to sustainable transportation infrastructure.

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Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Er. Tushar Kumar, Er. Ajay Kumar Duggal. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.